Female Underrepresentation in STEM Subjects: An Exploratory Study of Female High School Students in China

Lizhi He; George Zhou; Geri Salinitri; Lianrong Xu

doi:10.29333/ejmste/109657

Full Text (PDF)

Lizhi He ¹, George Zhou ¹ ^* , Geri Salinitri ¹, Lianrong Xu ²

More Detail

¹ University of Windsor, CANADA² Liaocheng University, CHINA^* Corresponding Author

Abstract

In China, there exists many factors such as girls’ socialized gender norms and the values and pedagogy incorporated in the science curriculum that may discourage female students from choosing science courses. In order to ensure that female students have the same opportunities to reach their potential in STEM areas, it is important to understand these factors that influence their choices. This study investigates the potential reasons why female high school students in China are less likely to choose STEM subjects. By conducting qualitative interviews with six female students, from two Chinese high schools, the study discovers several factors behind their decision-making in course selection, including the influence of current science curriculum, teachers, labor market, parents, and peers. The findings of this study enrich existing research on gender equity in Chinese high school education and provide insights about relevant policies to address gender disparities in science programs.

Keywords

Chinese high school education
gender equity
STEM
female underrepresentation

License

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Article Type: Research Article

EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed, Volume 16, Issue 1, January 2020, Article No: em1802

https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109657

Publication date: 16 Sep 2019

Article Views: 5069

Article Downloads: 3928

Open Access References How to cite this article

References

Ayalon, H. (2003). Women and men go to university: Mathematical background and gender differences in choice of field in higher education. Sex Roles, 48(5), 227-290. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022829522556.
Ballen, C., Salehi, S., & Cotner, S. (2017). Exams disadvantage women in introductory biology. PLoS ONE, 12(10), E0186419. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0186419.
Barton, A. (1998). Feminist science education (Athene series). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Clandfield, D., & Martell, G. (2014). Restacking the deck: Streaming by class, race and gender in Ontario schools. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives.
Dasgupta, N., Scircle, M., & Hunsinger, M. (2015). Female peers in small work groups enhance women’s motivation, verbal participation, and career aspirations in engineering. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112(16), 4988-4993. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1422822112.
Davey, G., De Lian, C., & Higgins, L. (2007). The university entrance examination system in China. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 31(4), 385-396. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098770701625761.
Diekman, A., Brown, E., Johnston, A., & Clark, E. (2010). Seeking congruity between goals and roles. Psychological Science, 21(8), 1051-1057. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610377342.
Ebbutt, D. (1981). Girls’ science: Boys’ science revisited. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Fan, C. (2003). Rural-urban migration and gender division of labor in transitional China. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 27(1), 24-47. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.00429.
Fan, M. (2011). 当前我国大学生选择专业的性别差异分析 [An analysis of gender-based differences in undergraduate students’ major selection]. Modern Education Science, 3, 56-60.
Freeman, N. (2007). Preschoolers’ perceptions of gender appropriate toys and their parents’ beliefs about genderized behaviors: Miscommunication, mixed messages, or hidden truths? Early Childhood Education Journal, 34(5), 357-366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-006-0123-x.
Friedman-Sokuler, N., & Justman, M. (2016). Gender streaming and prior achievement in high school science and mathematics. Economics of Education Review, 53, 230-253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2016.04.004.
Frome, P. M., Alfeld, C. J., Eccles, J. S., & Barber, B. L. (2006). Why don’t they want a male-dominated job? An investigation of young women who changed their occupational aspirations. Educational Research and Evaluation, 12(4), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803610600765786.
Gilmartin, S., Denson, N., Li, E., Bryant, A., & Aschbacher, P. (2007). Gender ratios in high school science departments: The effect of percent female faculty on multiple dimensions of students’ science identities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44(7), 980-1009. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.20179.
Guiso, L., Monte, F., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2008). Diversity, culture, gender, and math. Science, 320(5880), 1164-1165. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1154094.
Harding, S., & Longino, H. (1993). Whose science? Whose knowledge? Thinking from women’s lives. Signs, 19(1), 201. https://doi.org/10.1086/494867.
He, H. W. (1996). Chinese students’ approach to learning English: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (Unpublished master’s thesis), Biola University, La Mirada, CA.
Huyer, S., & Westholm, G. (2007). Gender indicators in science, engineering and technology: An information toolkit. Pairs: UNESCO.
Isaack, S., & Michael, W. B. (Eds.). (1981). A hand book in research and evaluation: A collection of principles, methods, and strategies useful in the planning, design and evaluation of studies in education and behavioral sciences. Santiago: ITS Publishers.
Jia, Y. Z., & Ma, D. L. (2015). Changes in a gender perspective from multifaceted perspective: The case with men dominating the outside while women dominating the inside of households [In Chinese]. Collection of Women’s Studies, 3, 29–36.
Kelly, A. (1981). The missing half: Girls and science education. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Knight, T. (2016). Women and the Chinese labor market: Recent patterns and future possibilities. The Chinese Economy, 49(3), 213-227. https://doi.org/10.1080/10971475.2016.1159907.
Legewie, J., & DiPrete, T. (2014). The high school environment and the gender gap in science and engineering. Sociology of Education, 87(4), 259-280. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040714547770.
Leslie, S., Cimpian, A., Meyer, M., & Freeland, E. (2015). Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines. Science, 347(6219), 262-265. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1261375.
Li, F. Q., Gao, Q., & Wu, H. (2015). 我国高考改革方案中”文理不分科”政策的意义与实施策略 [The Proposal of Integrating the Subjects of Arts and Sciencein College Entrance Examination: Significance and Measures]. Journal of Teacher Education, 6(2), 20-27.
Lindsey, L. L. (2015). Gender roles: A sociological perspective. Abingdon: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315664095.
Liu, C. H., & Hu, Z. P. (2005). 论”素质教育”与”应试教育”的对立性 [The antagonism between “quality Education” and “examination-oriented Education”]. Curriculum, Teaching Material and Method, 10, 3-8.
Liu, J. Q. (1998). Education of females in China: Trends and issues. Journal of Educational Thought, 32(1), 43-55.
Lockwood, P. (2006). ‘Someone like me can be successful’: Do college students need same gender role models? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(1), 36-46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00260.x.
Lord, C. G., & Saenz, D. S. (1985). Memory deficits and memory surfeits: Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(4), 918-926. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.49.4.918.
Ma, L. P., You, Y., Xiong, Y., Dong, L., Wang, M. S., & Kou, K. Z. (2016). 大学生专业选择的性别差异——基于全国85所高校的调查研究 [Gender differences in undergraduate students’ major selection— based on the survey of 85 universities in China]. Higher Education Research, 5, 36-42.
Marcellus, J. (2010). Business girls & two-job wives: Emerging media stereotypes of employed women. Hampton Press Inc.
Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. (2004). Children’s search for gender cues: Cognitive perspectives on gender development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(2), 67–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00276.x.
Master, A., Cheryan, S., & Meltzoff, A. (2015). Computing whether she belongs: Stereotypes undermine girls’ interest and sense of belonging in computer science. Journal of Educational Psychology, Journal of Educational Psychology, 108(3), 424-437. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000061.
Mead, G. H. (1934). The Self and the Organism. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Monk-Turner, E., Kouts, T., Parris, K., & Webb, C. (2007). Gender role stereotyping in advertisements on three radio stations: Does musical genre make a difference? Journal of Gender Studies, 16(2), 173-182. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589230701324736.
Murphy, P., & Whitelegg, E. (2006). Girls and physics: continuing barriers to ‘belonging’. Curriculum Journal, 17(3), 281-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585170600909753.
National Bureau of Statistics of China, State Statistical Bureau. (2000–2010, 2013, 2014). China statistical yearbook. Beijing: China Statistical Publishing House.
National Science Board. (2004). Science and engineering indicators 2004. Two volumes (volume 1, NSB 04-1; volume 2, NSB 04-1A). Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.
Nwosu, S. N., Etiubon, R. U., & Udofia, T. W. (2014). Tackling inhibitions to careers in science and technology through differentiated mentoring approach. International Education Studies, 7(8), 124-133. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v7n8p124.
Qian, J. (2002). Chinese graduate students’ experiences in writing literature review. Unpublished master’s thesis. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario.
Raag, T., & Rackliff, C. (1998). Preschoolers’ awareness of social expectations of gender: Relationships to toy choices. Sex Roles, 38(9), 685-700. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018890728636.
Riddell, S. (1989). Pupils, resistance and gender codes: A study of classroom encounters. Gender and Education, 1(2), 183-197. https://doi.org/10.1080/0954025890010207.
Ridenour, C. S., & Hassell Hughes, S. (2016). Girl talk: a qualitative study of girls talking about the meaning of their lives in an urban single-sex elementary school. The Teacher Educator, 51(2), 97-114. https://doi.org/10.1080/08878730.2016.1150753.
Riegle‐Crumb, C., & Moore, C. (2014). The gender gap in high school physics: Considering the context of local communities. Social Science Quarterly, 95(1), 253-268. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12022.
Riordan, C. (2002). What do we know about the effects of single-sex schools in the private sector? Research in Sociology of Education and Socialization, 10, 177–205.
Risman, B. J. (2004). Gender as a social structure: Theory wrestling with activism. Gender and Society, 18(4), 429-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204265349.
Roos, P. A., & Marl, L. G. (2009). Gender (in) equity in the academy: subtle mechanisms and the production of inequality,’’ Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 27(3), 177–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2009.04.005.
Schultz, T. P. (1993). Investments in the schooling and health of women and men: Quantities and returns. Journal of Human Resources, 28(4), 694-734. https://doi.org/10.2307/146291.
Science for all Americans: A project 2061 report on literacy goals in Science, Mathematics, and Technology American Association for the advancement of science 1989. (1990). Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 10(2), 93-101. https://doi.org/10.1177/027046769001000206.
Sekaquaptewa, D., & Thompson, M. (2003). Solo status, stereotype threat, and performance expectancies: Their effects on women’s performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(1), 68-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00508-5.
Shen, J. P. (2001). Confucius. Fifty major thinkers on education: from Confucius to Dewey. New York: Routledge.
Shu, X. (2004). Education and gender egalitarianism: The case of China. Sociology of Education, 77(4), 311-336. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070407700403.
Smyth, E. (2010). Single-sex education: What does research tell us? Revue française de pédagogie, 171, 47-55. https://doi.org/10.4000/rfp.1896.
Spielhofer, T., Benton, T., & Schagen, S. (2004). A study of the effects of school size and single‐sex education in English schools. Research Papers in Education, 19(2), 133-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671520410001695407.
Tai, R. H., Liu, C. Q., Maltese, A. V., & Fan, X. (2006). Planning early for careers in science. Science, 312(5777), 1143–1144. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1128690.
Van den Hoonaard, D. K. (2015). Qualitative research in action: A Canadian primer. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Wang, L. X. (2003). 家庭背景与女性高等教育入学机会[The family background and the opportunity for women’s higher education]. Journal of Zhejiang University of Technology (Social Science), (01), 117-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/000494419904300204.
Woodward, L. J., Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (1999). Effects of single-sex and coeducational secondary schooling on children’s academic achievement. Australian Journal of Education, 43(2), 142. https://doi.org/10.1177/000494419904300204.
Xiao, K., & Huang, X. Q. (2010). 文理分科问题的再思考[Reflections on the division of Arts and Sciences]. Education Science Forum, (01), 25-27.
Yang, D. P. (2007). 重新认识应试教 [New understanding of examination-oriented education]. Peking University Education Review, 02, 2-7.
Yin, R. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). California, CA: Sage Publications.
Zhou, G. (2003). Discovery-simulated teaching approach: Theory and example. Proceedings of the 7th Conference of International History, Philosophy, and Science Teaching Group, 958-997.

How to cite this article

APA

He, L., Zhou, G., Salinitri, G., & Xu, L. (2020). Female Underrepresentation in STEM Subjects: An Exploratory Study of Female High School Students in China. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(1), em1802. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109657

Vancouver

He L, Zhou G, Salinitri G, Xu L. Female Underrepresentation in STEM Subjects: An Exploratory Study of Female High School Students in China. EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed. 2020;16(1):em1802. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109657

AMA

He L, Zhou G, Salinitri G, Xu L. Female Underrepresentation in STEM Subjects: An Exploratory Study of Female High School Students in China. EURASIA J Math Sci Tech Ed. 2020;16(1), em1802. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109657

Chicago

He, Lizhi, George Zhou, Geri Salinitri, and Lianrong Xu. "Female Underrepresentation in STEM Subjects: An Exploratory Study of Female High School Students in China". Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education 2020 16 no. 1 (2020): em1802. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109657

Harvard

He, L., Zhou, G., Salinitri, G., and Xu, L. (2020). Female Underrepresentation in STEM Subjects: An Exploratory Study of Female High School Students in China. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 16(1), em1802. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109657

MLA

He, Lizhi et al. "Female Underrepresentation in STEM Subjects: An Exploratory Study of Female High School Students in China". Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, vol. 16, no. 1, 2020, em1802. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109657